Saturday, 15 September 2018

Collection of Food and Dietary Supplement Intake Data: What We Eat in India

Nutritional Deficiencies

Patients who have had bariatric surgery may have nutritional deficiencies. These include:

What are vitamin deficiencies?

If you are not absorbing enough vitamins , you may be low on the following:

Fat soluble vitamins, including D, K, A and E
Water soluble ones, including C and B (1- thiamin, 12 and folate)

Vitamin Deficiencies
Vitamin A	Lose of vision, Visual and skin changes
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)	Thiamin (vitamin B1) is important for energy metabolism, particularly carbohydrate metabolism. It’s also key for muscle contractions and the conduction of nerve signals. *Thiamin deficiency causes beriberi* disease and can cause weakness, fatigue, psychosis and nerve damage.Whilst it’s not very common, alcoholics are most at risk of beriberi.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)	Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is also involved in energy metabolism. It keeps the skin, eyes and nervous system healthy. Deficiency of riboflavin (ariboflavinosis) can cause several symptoms such as a sore throat, cheilosis (lesions on the lips), normocytic, normochromic anaemia, and angular stomatitis (lesions on the angles of the mouth). Without riboflavin, several other vitamins, such as folate, can’t be metabolised so riboflavin deficiency often occurs with other vitamin deficiencies
Vitamin B12	Anemia
*Vitamin C (or ascorbic acid)*	*Scurvy* is a disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Early symptoms of deficiency include weakness, feeling tired and sore arms and legs. Without treatment, decreased red blood cells, gum disease, changes to hair, and bleeding from the skin may occur. Vitamin A deficiency is the world’s leading cause of preventable blindness in children, and increases the risk of disease and death In pregnant women, a deficiency can cause night blindness, and increase the risk of maternal mortality
Vitamin D	Bone abnormalities:it helps to regulate the amount of calcium and phosphate in the body; *Rickets* A lack of vitamin D can lead to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, which is characterised by weakness, aches and pains because the bones don’t have enough calcium
Vitamin E (antioxidant)	Neurological problems maintaining healthy skin and regulating and strengthening the immune response
Vitamin K	Blood clotting problems also works with vitamin D to regulate calcium in the body

What are mineral deficiencies?

If you are not absorbing enough minerals, you may be low on the following:

Choline	Choline may be a non-essential B vitamin, but it is important for cell membranes and for the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which has a role in memory and muscle control[33]. A lack of choline is unlikely, but it can cause muscle damage and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)[34]
Potassium	Potassium is a key electrolyte and so is important for controlling the balance of fluids in the body[35]. It also plays a critical role in nerve transmission and muscle contractions, particularly the heart[35]. Taking too much potassium from supplements can cause stomach pain and diarrhea. High potassium levels may also be the result of kidney disease[36].
Sodium & Chloride	Most chloride is gained from salt (sodium chloride), so deficiencies are rare. However, consuming too much salt is very common due to the abundance of salt in everyday food. Sodium and chloride are electrolytes that help keep the level of fluids in the body balanced. Sodium also works with potassium in nerve transmissions[37], while chloride helps the body to digest food because it’s an essential component of the fluids in the stomach[38]. Consuming excessive amounts of salt is linked to an increase in blood pressure (hypertension), which raises your risk of having a stroke or heart attack[39].
Calcium	Calcium is the most abundant mineral in our body as it’s a major constituent of bones and teeth. Calcium is required for muscle contraction, and short-term deficiency may cause muscle cramps, stiffness and poor mobility[40]. It’s important to have a good intake in the bone-building years, which are as a baby and again from adolescence to about 30 years of age, especially for females[41]. Insufficient amounts can lead to brittle-bone disease (osteoporosis) when you’re older, where your bones break very easily due to the slow loss of bone mass[42]. Although calcium toxicity is rare, acute symptoms may include fatigue, muscle weakness, kidney stones and constipation, while long-term excessive calcium intake may increase the risk of developing several diseases[43]. Too much calcium can also limit iron absorption[44].
Phosphorus	Phosphorus is a mineral that helps to build and maintain strong bones and teeth in conjunction with calcium[45]. Phosphorus also helps release energy from food[46]. Acute high doses of phosphorus supplements can cause diarrhea and stomach pain[45]. Taking high doses for a long time in the absence of adequate calcium intake can increase bone fracture risk[47].
Magnesium	Magnesium is important for energy regulation, muscle and, nerve function[48]. Taking high doses of magnesium for a short time can cause diarrhea, nausea, vomiting and abdominal cramping[49].
Iron	Iron is an essential mineral with several important roles in the body. Its most well-known role is as a key component of hemoglobin, which allows red blood cells to transport oxygen around the body[50]. Iron deficiency, which can lead to *iron-deficiency anemia, is one of the most common micronutrient deficiencies* globally[51]. It is a particular issue for menstruating women due to monthly blood loss[50]. Excessive iron intake in one sitting can cause constipation, nausea and vomiting, especially if food is not eaten at the same time[52].
Zinc	Zinc plays roles in the immune system, including wound healing, and growth and development[53]. Zinc deficiency affects an estimated two billion people[54]. In children, this can cause growth retardation and an impaired immune system resulting in an increased risk of infections[53]. Taking high doses of zinc over a long period reduces the amount of copper that the body can absorb. This can lead to anemia and the weakening of bones[55].
Copper	Copper plays a vital role in the immune system through antioxidant defense and its involvement in white blood cell production[56]. It’s also needed for iron metabolism and, therefore, the formation of hemoglobin[57]. Both copper deficiency and toxicity are relatively rare[58]. Taking high doses of copper can cause stomach pain, diarrhea and nausea[57].
Iodine	Population effects of severe iodine deficiency, termed iodine deficiency disorders (IDDs), include endemic *goiter*, hypothyroidism, cretinism, decreased fertility rate, increased infant mortality, and mental retardation.

How will you test the presence of starch in food?

Take small quantity of the food items to be tested. Put 2-3 drops of iodine solution on it. Observe the colour of the food item. Blue-black colour indicates the presence of starch in the tested food item.

How will you test the presence of Protein in food?

Proteins are needed for the growth and repair of our body. Foods containing proteins are often called ‘Body Building Foods’. Test if a food item contains protein.

Take a small quantity of the food items to be tested.
Grind/mash/paste/powder the food item.
Put the food item into a test tube.
Add 10 drops of water and shake the test tube.
Using a dropper add two drops of copper sulphate solution to the test tube.
Add 10 drops of caustic soda solution and shake the test tube.
Observe the colour of the mixture.
Violet colour indicates the presence of proteins in the tested food item.

How will you test the presence of Fats in food?

Fat is a major source of energy and also aids your body in absorbing fat soluble vitamins. You need a minimum of 10 to 20 percent of your overall calories as fat .Test if a food item contains fat.

Take a small quantity of the food item to be tested.
Wrap the food item in a piece of paper and crush it.
Straighten the paper.
Dry the paper by keeping it in sunlight for a while.
Observe the paper.
An oily patch on the paper indicates the presence of fats in the tested food item.

BALANCED DIET

The food we normally eat in a day is our diet. For growth and maintenance of good health, our diet should have all the nutrients that our body needs, in right quantities. Not too much of one and not too little of the other. The diet should also contain a good amount of roughage and water. Such a diet is called a balanced diet.

DEFICIENCY DISEASES

A person may be getting enough food to eat, but sometimes the food may not contain a particular nutrient. If this continues over a long period of time, the person may suffer from its deficiency. Deficiency of one or more nutrients can cause diseases or disorders in our body. Diseases that occur due to lack of nutrients over a long period are called deficiency diseases.

If a person does not get enough proteins in his/her food for a long time, he/she is likely to have stunted growth, swelling of face, discolouration of hair, skin diseases and diarrhoea.
If the diet is deficient in both carbohydrates and proteins for a long period of time, the growth may stop completely. Such a person becomes very lean and thin and so weak that he/she may not even be able to move.

All deficiency diseases can be prevented by taking a balanced diet.

Summary

The major nutrients in our food are carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. In addition, food also contains dietary fibres and water.

Carbohydrates and fats mainly provide energy to our body.

Proteins and minerals are needed for the growth and the maintenance of our body.

Vitamins help in protecting our body against diseases.

Balanced diet provides all the nutrients that our body needs, in right quantities, along with adequate amount of roughage and water.

Deficiency of one or more nutrients in our food for a long time may cause certain diseases or disorders.

MCQ on Components of food and Deficiency

References

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Sanders LM, et al. Choline: Dietary Requirements and Role in Brain Development. Nutr Today. 2007; 42(4):181-6.
2Institute LP. Oregon State University. Choline. Date Accessed: 30/05/19. [Available from: https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/other-nutrients/choline]
Kowey P. The Role of Potassium. Lobo R.A. CPG, Paoletti R., Bruschi F, (eds). Springer: Boston, MA; 2002.
NHS. Potassium Test. Date Accessed: 31/05/19. [Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/potassium-test/]
Institute LP. Oregon State University. Sodium (Chloride). Date Accessed: 31/05/19. [Available from: https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/sodium]
Meeroff JC, et al. Electrolytes of the gastric juice in health and gastroduodenal diseases. The American journal of digestive diseases. 1973; 18(10):865-72.
NHS. Others: Sodium chloride (salt). Date Accessed: 31/05/19. [Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/others/#salt
NHS. Calcium. Date Accessed: 31/05/19. [Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/calcium/]
Beto JA. The role of calcium in human aging. Clin Nutr Res. 2015; 4(1):1-8.
Demontiero O, et al. Aging and bone loss: new insights for the clinician. Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis. 2012; 4(2):61-76.
Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. National Academies Press: Washington (DC); 2011.
Lonnerdal B. Calcium and iron absorption--mechanisms and public health relevance. International journal for vitamin and nutrition research Internationale Zeitschrift fur Vitamin- und Ernahrungsforschung Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition. 2010; 80(4-5):293-9.
Institute LP. Phosphorus Date Accessed: 31/05/19. [Available from: https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/phosphorus]
Plus M. NIH. Phosphorus in the diet. Date Accessed: 31/05/19. [Available from: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002424.htm]
Takeda E, et al. The regulation and function of phosphate in the human body. BioFactors (Oxford, England). 2004; 21(1-4):345-55.
Carvil P, et al. Magnesium and Implications on Muscle Function. 2010. 48-54 p.
NIH. Magnesium. Date Accessed: 31/05/19. [Available from: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/]
NHS. Iron Date Accessed: 31/05/19. [Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/iron/]
Lopez A, et al. Iron deficiency anaemia. The Lancet. 2016; 387(10021):907-16.
NIH. Iron. Date Accessed: 31/05/19 [Available from: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-HealthProfessional/]
Institute LP. Oregon State University. Zinc. Date Accessed: 31/05/19. [Available from: https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/zinc]
Prasad AS. Discovery of human zinc deficiency: its impact on human health and disease. Adv Nutr. 2013; 4(2):176-90.
Willis MS, et al. Zinc-induced copper deficiency: a report of three cases initially recognized on bone marrow examination. American journal of clinical pathology. 2005; 123(1):125-31.
Bost M, et al. Dietary copper and human health: Current evidence and unresolved issues. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology. 2016; 35:107-15.
NHS. Others: Copper. Date Accessed: 07/06/19. [Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/others/#copper]

Motivation and learning : Educational Psychology

Learning and Motivation Syllabus and Study Material

A. Concept of Learning:

In the process of education learning occupies a quite central place. That ever exists in our educational set up is meant for the learning of the learners i.e. students. So “fore it is quite essential for you as a would be teacher to be acquainted with the concept of the term learning. Let us analyse the concept of the term learning by

Gardner Murphy – “The term learning covers every modification in behavior to meet environmental requirements.”
Henry P. Smith – “Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old behavior as the result of experience.
Woodworth – “Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual (in any respect, good or bad) and makes him alter behavior and experiences different from what that would otherwise have been.
Kingsley and Garry – “Learning is the process by which behavior (in the broader sense) is organized or changes through practice or training”.

B. Concept of Motivation:

“Motivation is the basic problem of psychology in Education.” – Bernard
“Motivation is the super-highway to learning.” – Skinner
“Motivation is the central factor in the efficient management of the process of learning. Some type of motivation must be present in all learning.” – Kelly

C. Theories of Learning:

Learning the theories have generated controversy which has extended research in several directions, with the result that some psychologists are beginning to think in terms of learning “systems” rather than of one theoretical approach that covers everything. But even this statement can raise controversy.

Association Theory.

Drive Stimulus Reduction Theory

Cognitive Theories.

C.1) Factors Affecting Learning

(i) Teaching, Instruction and Learning:

In order to understand there are meaning of teaching, it is essential to understand the difference the difference between Teaching, Instruction, and learning. Hence, we are clarifying the differences in these three terms in the following line?

Teaching: In teaching, an interaction occurs between the teacher and the pupils. As a result of which the pupils are diverted towards the objective*. In order words, the main element of teaching i.e. the mutual relationship or the interaction between the teacher and the pupils advances the pupils towards objectives

Instruction: The instruction does not involve an interaction between the teacher and the pupil. Still the instruction can divert the pupils towards objectives. The main difference between teaching and instruction is that the teaching includes instruction but the instruction does not include teaching. Hence, the teaching is instruction but the instruction is not teaching. In spite of this, all the three cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects of the pupils can be developed by teaching, while by instruction, only cognitive aspect can be developed. Hence, no instruction can replace the teaching. In short, instruction is that process which diverts the pupils towards the objectives of cognitive aspect.

Learning: Learning means – (a) activities and (b) experience. Both teaching and instruction influence learning through various activities and experiences. Hence, the learning and teaching mean the modification of pupils’ behaviour through activities and experiences.

Characteristics of learning:

Learning involves change.
All learning involves activities.
Learning Requires Interaction.
Constitute Learning.
Learning is a Lifelong Process.
Learning Occurs Randomly Throughout Life.
Learning Involves Problems Solving.
Learning is the Process of Acquiring Information.
Learning Involves far more than Thinking.
Experience is Necessary for Learning.

Learning Styles:

Many people recognize that each person prefers different learning styles and techniques
Using multiple learning styles and multiple intelligence for learning is a relatively new approach.
By recognizing and understanding your own learning styles, you can use techniques better suited to you. This improves the speed and quality of your learning.

Visual (spatial):You prefer using pictures, images, and spatial understanding.
Aural (auditory-musical): You prefer using sound and music.
Verbal (linguistic): You prefer using words, both in speech and writing.
Physical (kinesthetic): You prefer using your body, hands and sense of touch.
Logical (mathematical): You prefer using logic, reasoning and systems.
Social (interpersonal): You prefer to learn in groups or with other people.
Solitary (interpersonal): You prefer to work alone and use self-study.

7 Important Factors that May Affect the Learning Process

D. Learning and Motivation:

Motives originate during our lifetime, largely through experiences involving other people, because, they are developed through personal and social contracts, these motives are referred to as personal, social or acquired motives. Some of our motives are inborn, determined by our physiological inheritance.

According to educational psychologists, three factors affect learning;

D.1) Motivational factors
D.2) Physiological factors
D.3) Environment factors.

D.1) Motivational factors

Motivational factors are psychological factors that condition learning. Sufficient motivational force, not only initiates activity which results in learning, but also sustains and directs its. Kinds of Motivation: There are two kinds of motivation in the context of learning. These are:

Intrinsic motivation:

and

Extrinsic motivation:

D.1.1) Factors Accounting for Motivation:

There are four factors which account for motivation –

Arousal
Expectancy
Incentives
Punishment

D.1.2) Theories of Motivation:

The main theories of Motivation are as under –

Instinctive Theory of Motivation
Psycho-analytic Theory of Motivation.
Behaviouristic Theory of Motivation.
Murray’s Need Theory of Motivation.
Maslow’s Hierarchical Theory of Motivation.
Hygiene Theory of Motivation.
Pawn Theory

D.2) Physiological factors

Further Reading: For Teacher Eligibility Test Better Preparation

Friday, 14 September 2018

Teacher Eligibility Test Language 2

Language II - 30 Questions

(a) Comprehension - 15 Questions

Two unseen prose passages (discursive or literary or narrative or scientific) with question on comprehension, grammar and verbal ability

(b) Pedagogy of Language Development - 15 Questions

• Learning and acquisition

• Principles of language Teaching

• Role of listening and speaking; function of language and how children use it as a tool

• Critical perspective on the role of grammar in learning a language for communicating ideas verbally and in written form;

• Challenges of teaching language in a diverse classroom; language difficulties, errors and disorders

• Language Skills

• Evaluating language comprehension and proficiency: speaking, listening, reading and writing

• Teaching – learning materials: Textbook, multi-media materials, multilingual resource of the classroom

• Remedial Teaching

Teacher Eligibility Test Language 1

Language I - 30 Questions

(a) Language Comprehension - 15 Questions

Reading unseen passages – two passages one prose or drama and one poem with questions on comprehension, inference, grammar and verbal ability (Prose passage may be literary, scientific, narrative or discursive)